Lynch v. Donnelly Supreme Court Case, Arguments, Impact

Lynch v. Donnelly (1984) asked the Supreme Court to determine whether a city-owned, publicly displayed nativity scene violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment, which states that Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The court ruled that the nativity scene did not pose any threat to the separation of church and state. Fast Facts: Lynch v. Donnelley Case Argued: October 4, 1983Decision Issued:  March 5, 1984Petitioner:  Dennis Lynch, Mayor of Pawtucket, Rhode IslandRespondent:  Daniel DonnelleyKey Questions: Did the inclusion of a nativity scene in the City of Pawtucket’s display violate the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment?Majority Decision: Justices Burger, White, Powell, Rehnquist, and O’ConnorDissenting: Justices Brennan, Marshall, Blackmun, and StevensRuling:  Since the city did not purposefully try to advance a specific religion, and that no religion had no discernible benefit from the display, the nativity scene did not violate the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. Facts of the Case In 1983, the city of Pawtucket, Rhode Island put up its annual Christmas decorations. In a prominent park owned by a non-profit, the town set up a display with a Santa Claus house, a sleigh and reindeer, carolers, a Christmas tree, and a seasons greetings banner. The display included a creche, also called a nativity scene, which had been annually making appearances for over 40 years. Pawtucket residents and the Rhode Island affiliate of the American Civil Liberties Union sued the city. They alleged that the decorations violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment, incorporated to the states by the Fourteenth Amendment. The district court found in favor of the residents, agreeing that the decorations were an endorsement of religion. The First Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the decision, though the bench was split. The U.S. Supreme Court granted certiorari. Constitutional Issues Did the city violate the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment when it constructed Christmas decorations and a nativity scene? Arguments Attorneys on behalf of the residents and ACLU argued that the nativity scene violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The nativity scene aimed to promote a specific religion. According to the attorneys, the display and the political divisiveness it caused suggested an excessive entanglement between the town government and religion. Attorneys on behalf of Pawtucket argued the opposite of the residents bringing the lawsuit. The purpose of the nativity scene was to celebrate the holiday and attract people downtown to boost Christmas sales. As such, the town did not violate the Establishment Clause by setting up a nativity scene and there was no excessive entanglement between the town government and religion. Majority Opinion In a 5-4 decision, delivered by Justice Warren E. Burger, the majority found that the city had not violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The purpose of the establishment clause, as shown in Lemon v. Kurtzman, was to prevent, as far as possible, the intrusion of either [the church or the state] into the precincts of the other. However, the Court recognized that there would always be a relationship between the two. According to the majority, religious invocations and references go as far back as 1789 when Congress began employing congressional chaplains to say daily prayers. The Court chose to focus solely on the constitutionality of the nativity scene in adjudicating the case. The Court asked three questions to help it decide whether Pawtucket had violated the Establishment  Clause. Did the challenged law or conduct have a secular purpose?Was advancing religion its primary goal?Did the conduct create an excessive entanglement between the town government and a specific religion? According to the majority, the nativity scene had legitimate secular purposes. The scene was a historical reference amidst a larger Christmas display in recognition of the holiday season. In constructing the nativity scene, the city did not purposefully try to advance a specific religion and that religion had no discernible benefit from the display. Any minimal advancement of religion could not be considered cause for a violation of the Establishment Clause. Justice Burger wrote: To forbid the use of this one passive symbol—the creche—at the very time people are taking note of the season with Christmas hymns and carols in public schools and other public places, and while the Congress and legislatures open sessions with prayers by paid chaplains, would be a stilted overreaction contrary to our history and to our holdings. Dissenting Opinion Justices William J. Brennan, John Marshall, Harry Blackmun, and John Paul Stevens dissented. According to the dissenting justices, the Court appropriately used the Lemon v. Kurtzman test. However, it did not properly apply it. The majority was too reluctant to thoroughly apply the standards to a familiar and agreeable holiday like Christmas. The Pawtucket display needed to be nondenominational and not promote religion in order to be constitutional. Justice Brennan wrote: The inclusion of a distinctively religious element like the creche, however, demonstrates that a narrower sectarian purpose lay behind the decision to include a nativity scene. Impact In Lynch v. Donnelly, the majority accommodated religion in a way that it had not in past rulings. Instead of strictly applying the Lemon v. Kurtzman test, the court asked whether the nativity scene posed a real threat to the establishment of a state-recognized religion. Five years later, in 1989, the court ruled differently in Allegheny v. ACLU. A nativity scene, unaccompanied by other Christmas decorations in a public building violated the Establishment Clause. Sources Lynch v. Donnelly, 465 U.S. 668 (1984)

Things Fall Apart and Universal Appeal - 951 Words

Things Fall Apart-Universal Appeal Confronted with a global conscious filled with hazy, negative conception of the African reality, appalled with such one sided works as Heart of Darkness and Mr. Johnson, Chinua Achebe determined in 1958 to inform the outside world about Ibo cultural traditions1. One can appreciate then, Achebe s inclusion of universal themes and concepts in is novel as a means of bridging the cultural gap with his audience and reiterating that Africans are in the end, human, just as members of any other race.Woven throughout the text of Things Fall Apart are universal themes in the form of images, concepts, and situations. â€Å"Does the white man understand our custom about land? How can he when he does not even†¦show more content†¦Some may hold that the novel is not a universal one, sighting inexplicable, foreign practices Achebe includes in the book without completely explaining them, (e.g Unoka s approach to his debtor, the unspoken laws of apology/ the kola nut), if he meant to give the novel a universal appeal, why did he include strange practices particular to Igbo culture? One must not forget that one intent of Achebe was to present Igbo culture through more objective eyes, and also through native eyes as had yet to be succesfully done. By leaving the reader to draw logical conclusions of their own with these matters, he also succeds in challenging his reader to examine such idiosyncrasies of his own culture, as is demonstrated in the discussion between the chief and original missionary Mr. Brown in which Achebe juxtaposes wooden idols and masked gods with the holy trinity. 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5 Performance Objectives of Wegmans Free Essays

Performance objectives of Wegmans Today I decided to do my presentation about Wegmans main performance objectives, first of all I will describe what exactly Wegmans Company is and what are 5 objectives of operations. Wegmans Food Markets, Inc. is a privately-held, family owned company that was founded in 1916 by the Wegman family. We will write a custom essay sample on 5 Performance Objectives of Wegmans or any similar topic only for you Order Now Based in Rochester, NY, they have raised the bar on the customer shopping experience. The company prides itself on offering exceptional customer service, high quality goods, an abundance of choice, restaurant-quality prepared foods, and beautiful stores and displays. Wegmans has appeared on Fortune’s annual â€Å"100 Best Companies to Work For† list since its inception in 1998, and has ranked among the top 10 for eight consecutive years. And about performance objectives I can say that it is a generic set of performance and indicators that can be used to set the objectives or judge the performance of any type of operation. There are 5 main performance objectives: Quality – â€Å"Doing things right†. Quality is very important aspect for customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction, it’s all about providing error free goods and services. Speed – â€Å"Doing things fast† to minimize the time between the order and the availability of the product or service that gives the customer a speed advantage. Dependability –â€Å"Being on time†, means that customers will get their goods and services when they are promised. Flexibility – â€Å"Changing what they do†. It’s about that organizations can change their products and services and change the way they do business. Cost – â€Å"Doing things cheaply†. Low price is a universal attractive objective to customers, which can be achieved by producing goods at lower costs. Let’s begin discussion about Wegmans performance objectives. Quality as I already said is most important from these five and of course it’s important for this company as well. The most important thing employers are doing is prevent problems from occurring in the first place by carefully partnering with suppliers who understand their expectations. Be it a grower, a Wegmans brand manufacturer or a seafood supplier, company makes it its business to know suppliers well, visiting their fields or facilities whenever possible. If a supplier is making a product for Wegmans lebel, they must either be inspected by Wegmans’ own Quality Assurance Auditors or must be certified against one of seven â€Å"Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI)† endorsed manufacturing standards. The first shipment of any new Wegmans brand product is scrutinized by company’s Quality Assurance staff to be sure it meets product specifications and food safety requirements. Tests are conducted in Wegmans Test Kitchen lab, or if necessary, by independent laboratories. Additional sampling and testing is done periodically, sometimes prompted by customer or employee comments. Company also pays attention on friendly environment. Each store manager sets the tone for the warm, friendly work environment that employees expect when they work for Wegmans. And in turn, employees greet their customers with warm, friendly, helpful attitudes, which is crucial for any business whose employees regularly interact with customers. So as we can see Company cares much about safety and high quality of products, because the owners of the business know well that high quality can influence customer satisfaction and lead to stable and efficient processes. For Wegmans Company it is very important to produce services and goods as fast as possible, and for this they are doing their best. As we know for fast production it’s important to have very good, qualified employees and good, modern technologies. So Wegmans company cares much about staff which works there, Wegmans’ Chairman Robert Wegman state that: â€Å"Respect, fairness, honesty, and concern are what’s important to people. To my way of thinking, the only way to achieve great customer service is by treating employees right. They have qualified employees in technic and production departments and also they have different training programs for providing better performance of the staff. Wegmans puts a huge emphasis on being an innovator in retail technology. In 1974, Wegmans was one of the first companies to introduce bar-code scanning, and in 1990 Wegmans introduced electronic discounts. The company launched its web site, wegmans. com in 1996. The site not only helps customers save time and money through its on-line ad, but also offers meal solutions, recipes, and even provides the ability to apply for jobs within the company. According to all these company is providing fast production and this is a huge way for the company success. Dependability is extremely important factor for customer trust and satisfaction, as i checked Wegman’s has strong position in it too. Customers are much satisfied how fast the company delivers its products, they love to go for shopping in Wegmans, some of them even said that: â€Å"A trip to Wegman’s is better than a trip to an amusement park†. All these is caused because firm provides additional ervices such as internet shops, which means that you can check out Wegmans products and services online, and even buy there, so save time by this, they also have recipes how to cook many different type and delicious food, they even provide these service by internet, if you go on their online page you can see many videos, about how to cook different foods, so as one Wegmaniac put it, â€Å"Shopping at Wegman’s is an experience. † In addition to a uniqu e shopping experience, including one-third of the space devoted to prepared foods, with another 15,000 sq. ft. or a liquor department, a 300-seat cafe, 70,000 products and some 30 checkout lanes, Wegmans brought relocated 75 Rochester employees to Massachusetts to ensure customers are treated the way Wegmans wants them to be treated. As an addition i would like to say that company managers said that for them it’s very important to know their consumer base and understand the demand. There’s so much diversity in Wegman’s markets these days, they need to know who their customers are and give them what they want. They said they have to give them not only what they are familiar with, but also explore other products that might not be a mainstream item. And in their case, that’s unique vegetables and fruits. Flexibility helps the firm to change over between tasks quickly and without wasting time and capacity. Wegmans provide good flexibility, as the firm is changing over time, they are doing researches and are changing by customer needs, they can change techniques, operations, they are producing new products, are offering many different services. For example last year they did a research and find out that they can be successful in growing certain varieties of organic produce in the northeast. CEO of the firm also said that last year they explored new techniques called a hoop house. It’s a metal frame with a plastic cover, and there they grow heirloom tomatoes and it was very successful. Every month they are offering new food products and for special celebration days they have special recipes, for example for thanksgiving day they offer which Turkey to choose, how to cook it, with what ingredients and so on, all these staff is very likable for customers and that’s a another factor why it is so popular. And the final objective cost is described For Wegmans as follows, they are trying in all ways to keep medium costs and at this time keep all the customers as well. They are doing this very well, because they have many tools for this, for example at a time when commodity and fuel costs are rising dramatically, Wegmans Food Markets announced that it will not increase prices on 40 products that families buy most, to help customers and employees manage their grocery costs. â€Å"We considered the importance of an item to a family when choosing our list of 40,† said President Colleen Wegman. Such things as bananas, pasta, frozen vegetables, and laundry detergent are in most shopping carts every week. They are products that families can’t do without, so what they pay for these items really matters. † The 40 products they selected to hold prices on were those that families buy week in and out. They were mostly Wegmans brand. Why? They have better access to information on the factors that determine costs for their own brand. Their quality makes them already the best value in their categories, and they’re often the top-selling brand. Another good example of cost leadrship of Wegmans is that, In November of 2008, many families were feeling the economic shock of their lives as the nation’s financial system teetered, jobs melted away, and household budgets shrank. Wegmans announced a decision to lower hundreds of prices on frequently purchased products. If customers and employees were facing leaner times, the company reasoned, Wegmans should also live with leaner times. So by performance objectives described above we can see that Wegmans is successful company and is doing best for its customers. How to cite 5 Performance Objectives of Wegmans, Essay examples

Food and Eating for Nutrition & Food Science-MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theFood and Eating for Nutrition Food Science. Answer: The socialisation is a concept that helps in understanding the method of communication via that the growing person learns the values and beliefs of the society the person belongs or in which he/she born. From these phases, the attitude and habit of an individual also form as per the society in which he/she belongs. The food eating habit is varied among different societies. We have to eat for survival; besides, we feel good when eating. Eating is our biological need, and we must satisfy our hunger each day. Eating is strongly a human urge. Food is closely related to the societies, and it is perceived that different societies have diverse food habits. Hence, the study of food and eating habit of the people of different societies provide us valuable ideas or insights about the ways they live in society (Albon, 2007). However, eating is deemed to be an important part of survival; how we eat, with whom and where we eat is not much important. But studying of this types of things helps us t o identify an individual or a group. From the food habit including the food choice, preparation of foods, the way of serving the foods, way of eating foods, and the courses after having foods demonstrate various important things about society. It is widely evident that the women prepare food in various society and the male is responsible for outer work and income for the family. The social constructionism is a social conception and philosophy of knowledge and acumen in sociology plus communication theory, which analysis the development of the mutually constructed understanding of the society that creates the foundation for shared assumption about realism. In our everyday life, we can feel the importance of this theory. It helps in learning sociology as well as help in understanding different perspectives of life and society. The characteristics of the people of any specific society and their beliefs can be recognized at the time of analysing the food habit of the people of that society (Meule, Kbler, 2012). As per the theory the people nature is depended on the society where they live. For instance, in India, the Hindus are mostly vegetarian, and beef is strictly no for the Hindus. On the other hand, the Muslims are generally non-vegetarian and though they eat beef though pork is strictly not allowed in Muslim family for the religious beliefs. In this way, we can see that many habits of the people largely varied for various factors. References Albon, D. (2007). Exploring food and eating patterns using food?maps.Nutrition Food Science,37(4), 254-259. Meule, A., Kbler, A. (2012). Food cravings in food addiction: The distinct role of positive reinforcement.Eating Behaviors,13(3), 252-255.

Sleep Apnea Informative Speech Essays - Sleep Disorders, Sleep Apnea

Sleep Apnea Informative Speech Title: Snoring is No Laughing Matter Topic: Sleep Apnea Disorder Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the seriousness of sleep apnea and how you can recognize it as well as treat it. Thesis Statement: Sleep Apnea, of all sleeping disorders, is the most likely to cause death, but it can be treated if the symptoms are recognized. INTRODUCTION Attention material: (With snoring sounds in background) Does this sound familiar? Do these sounds keep you up all night? Are you a snorer? If so, you are not alone. A National Family Opinion Poll revealed that 90 million people snore - 37 million on a regular basis (CNS). Yes, it can quite a nuisance, but it can also be the result of a very serious condition. Credibility material: My dad used to wake my family up and keep us up all night with his snoring. It just seemed to get louder and louder. Very annoying, because I, and I'm sure many of you, need my sleep. The gasps for air between what sounded like growls from a grisly began to worry my mother. After seeing a specialist, my father was diagnosed with a severe case of sleep apnea. Thesis statement: Sleep apnea is the most likely of all sleeping disorders to cause death, but it can be treated if the symptoms are recognized (Greenberg). (Transition: Sleep apnea affects 12 million Americans of various age, gender, and ethnicity. (ASAA)) BODY The word ?apnea? is the Greek word for ?without air?. When someone snores, there is a partial collapse of the air passage in the throat. But, in sufferers of sleep apnea, there is a complete obstruction to airflow. The word ?apnea? is the actual absence of airflow. It can last from 10 seconds to 2 minutes. One will usually have 300-500 apneas a night (CNS). Despite the airflow blockage, the person still tries to breath, but no air passes through. This results in an ?arousal?, or brief awakening, which is usually accompanied by a loud snore. The arousal opens the airway, and the person breaths rapidly for a short time. Then, they have another apnea. This is a continuous cycle. Alcohol and sleeping medicines can impair one's ability to have an ?arousal? and may not wake up during the apnea. This is how one may die from this condition because the lack of air can lead to hypoxia, or lack of oxygen getting to the brain (Krames). (Transition: Sleep apnea can also affect other areas of life.) Sufferers never are able to reach deep sleep. Sleep apnea results in restless sleepers. The condition also causes daytime sleepiness, memory lapses, and irritability. The disturbances in sleep also throw off the body's metabolism and can cause obesity. The most common sufferers are middle-aged overweight males (CNS). (Transition: Since this is a progressive and life-altering disease, it is important to recognize the symptoms so they can be treated.) Sleep apnea can be treated by prosthetic devices and surgery. The most commonly used prosthetic device is the CPAP (Krames). The CPAP, or nasal Continuous Positive Airway Pressure, is made up of an airflow generator, flexible hose, and nasal mask. It gently blows air into the throat to keep the air passage open. It is effective on almost all patients, but it is not a cure. Surgery can also be used to treat sleep apnea. This usually involves relieving the nasal passage of any obstructions. Sometimes, ones soft palate, uvula, or pharynx are reduced or removed. (Transition: Therefore, once aware of the condition, the necessary steps should be taken to treat it.) CONCLUSION Summary statement: In conclusion, if you or someone you know snores, don't drown out the noise by burying your head in the pillows. Instead, listen for the symptoms of this scary condition and maybe you can save the life of someone you care about. Concluding remarks: To find out more information about sleep apnea, seek advice from your doctor or a ear/nose/throat specialist. Bibliography WORKS CONSULTED American Sleep Apnea Association, ?Information About Sleep Apnea,? http:/www.sleepapnea.org. Undated posting. Downloaded November 2, 2000. Greenberg, Joel. ?The Aging of Sleep,? Science News. 1 July 1978: 10-12. CNS Inc., ?Snoring: Causes and Treatments.? Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1996. Krames Communications. ?Snoring and Sleep Apnea.? San Bruno, CA, 1995. Speech and Communications

van gogh essays

van gogh essays Hi, my name is Vincent Van Gogh. I was born on March 30, 1853 in Groot-Zundert, North Brabant, Netherlands. I am the eldest son of a Protestant Clergyman. In 1869, at age 16, I began to work for Groupil and Company, who were Art Dealers in The Hague, where my uncle was a partner. I briefly turned to teaching school in England after Groupil and Company dismissed me in 1876. I then began to study for entrance to a theological seminary to follow in the footsteps of my father. After failing to qualify, I then volunteered for service among the coal miners of the Borinage in southern Belgium. In 1881 I moved to The Hague to work with the Dutch landscape painter Anton Mauve. And the next summer I began to experiment with oil paints. My urge to be "alone with nature" took me to Dutch villages, and my subjects still life, landscape, and figure all related to the peasants' daily hardships and surroundings. In 1885 I produced my first masterpiece, 'The Potato Eaters'. In my life I have not accomplished much. I failed and lost interest in many of jobs that I have had. I did become a lay preacher in 1876. As for my paintings, I only sold one of them that I can remember. But I'm sure they will be worth millions in the future. My life as I have seen I was pretty much a waste of oxygen. I didn't accomplish anything in my eyes and anyone else's eyes that I know of. Sure, I made over a thousand paintings, but, I only sold one, I never married or had kids, and I couldn't stick to one profession. Now on July 27, 1890 I think I am going to go and commit suicide. I can't stand these mental hospitals anymore, even though they were my greatest inspiration. The people that have lived in my lifetime are the following: Queen Victoria, Disraeli, Gladstone, Franz Joseph, Bismarck, Marxx, Engles, Wells, Sydney and Beatrice Webb, George Shaw, Ramsey MacDonald, William Booth, Churchill, and Paul Kruger to name a few. ...

Buddhist Cultures (Development and Adaption) Essay

Buddhist Cultures (Development and Adaption) - Essay Example ly matters, study, physical exercises, cultivation of wisdom and the negation of suffering by understanding the true meaning of our natural phenomena. The main goal of Buddhism was to achieve Nirvana, which was through the negation of rebirths and end the human suffering which was bourn by the human soul. While Buddhism is quite popular amongst people in the Asian countries, it has branches across the globe. It is also believed that Buddhism has over 500 million followers across the world. (Hinnells, 2003, pp. 498-504) Thervada is a Sanskrit word which means â€Å"the teaching of the elders.† Founded in India, it is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It is a closely guarded Buddhist school which is supposed to be the closest to the original teachings of Buddhism and is the main religion of Sri Lanka. It is also prevalent in South East Asia, wherein countries such as Laos, Cambodia, Burma and Thailand have been following its practices for centuries. Thervada is also prevalent in China wherein it is practiced by the minorities such as the Tai and Shan ethnic groups. Likewise, it is also prevalent in Vietnam wherein the Khmer Krom, vouch for its purity and authenticity. The Baruas, Chakma and Magh communities of Bangladesh are also known to be its staunch followers. Thervada is now slowly spreading to other parts of the globe with Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Australia being the latest inclusions. (Hinnells, 2003, pp. 498-504) The Thervada school of Buddhism believes in the continuous analytical process of life. It is therefore not merely composed of mere rituals and customs. It believes in the Four Noble Truths, which are also known as the Four Sublime Truths. In simple words, they foretell the problem, its origin, the solution and the pathway to solution. (Hinnells, 2003, pp. 498-504) Dukkha Samudaya-this refers to the cause of suffering and can be categorized into three kinds of cravings. The first is craving for pleasurable sense objects, the second

Week 3 Conference Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Week 3 Conference - Essay Example rovide constitutional right fully because they do not provide tor the right of the due process of law that has been accorded to all accused persons in the United States. In that, any evidence or testimony from previous trials can be admissible during the trial, which I not the case in the criminal civil courts that means that the tried person is not accorded the right to due process. The courts should allow a structure as that of the civilian court to ensure that all the constitutional rights are upheld. In the case of Exparte Milligan (1866), the court illustrated that the constitution protects the law of the land. It also tried to justify the fact that every person should get a fair trial. Upon Appeal it was held that Milligan should have been tried in a regular court and not a military tribunal as the law protects every person and they are equal. Korematsu had a right of fair treatment as any other American resident but since he was Japanese, the government felt that they had a right to protect their country during war times. Moreover, if they saw him as a threat then they had a right to send him away from his home where he had refused to come out of, as he believed it was his right. The court felt that it was impossible from them to separate the friend from the foe or the royal and the disloyal as Korematsu was from the imperial Japan as all the Japanese were supposed to go to the internment camp and there would be no exceptions (Konkoly,2006, par.3). The court was correct in its holding not to exclude Korematsu from moving from his house to the internment camp as the rest of the Japanese, as they were protecting the security of the whole nation. The exclusion order 9066 at that time that is the 1942 to 1944 was seen as constitution because the courts sided with the government as they were trying to protect the country during the time of war. It was also held that the individual right of Mr. Fred was not as important as the rights of the American people and

Can Crusher Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Can Crusher - Essay Example This essay discusses about the uses, design and feature of different can crushers available. â€Å"Use of can crushers help food and beverage or other organizations to crush the cans for several peruses, such as easy to recycle, reducing business operation cost, saving space and maintain environmental sustainability†. The main use of a can crusher is to recycle used cans in a proper way so that there can be less pollution and expenses of manufacture of cans can be lowered. A can crusher is a simple device that is used for crushing of cans (Wisegeek 1). It is used widely because it saves time and helps in lowering costs that are required for production of fresh cans available in market. Industries prefer large hydraulic can crushers because it can easily crush many cans in a short period of time which in turn can be melted so that there could be large production of fresh cans with lesser purchase of raw materials. The time saving feature is the most important fact and because of this feature its use in the industries is up to an optimum level. Moreover for industrial purposes the can crushers that are appreciated should consist less space. Now a days there are many crushers available in the market that are technologically advanced and they work efficiently with minimum space possible. Most of the can crushers used in the modern world are self-loading (Stewart 699). These crushers consists of a basket which are placed at the top of the crusher, it also consists of a lever that is pulled so that the device can start crushing the cans. There is also a stopper placed at the bottom of the basket which allows cans to drop automatically up to a certain level that the device can intake for working. For lowering down the friction that is caused by the device lubricant is used so that the shape of the cans can be changed properly. The first crusher was invented and built by Jesse Wright

Domestic Violence Against Men | Challenges and Solutions

Domestic Violence Against Men | Challenges and Solutions Social Sciences theory for social work Abused Men in Hong Kong:  A need to build a men’s refugee? Kwok Lai Wun Introduction When we talk about domestic violence, it is common that we will think that the abuser is man and the abused one must be woman, but is it the only pattern in reality? Is there any chance for men abused by their partners or family? In fact, there are some news reports that the men victim in domestic violence in Hong Kong has been risen, however, there are limit service provided for them and there are no any confidential accommodation e.g. refugees, to protect their safety. Contrast to men’s situation, in Hong Kong, there are four woman refugee (organized by Po Leung Kuk, Christian Family Service Centre and Harmony house), one family crisis support center by Caritas and one family crisis intervention center (CEASE) by Tung Wah Group of hospitals provided vacancy for abused woman and their child, only two of which provide vacancy for male victims, but none of which are for male only, the one organized by Caritas is public in address, all people can find out their details though website or SWD, so it may have the chance that abuser will come to find the victims and not safety at all. The other one (CEASE) which is a shelter that for different type of people, including abused man and woman. So, in Hong Kong there is no specific shelter or refuge design for men only to provide a confidential short-term accommodation for them and focus on men victim’s needs. If you are men who were abused by your partners or family, where can you go and what so cial service that Hong Kong can provide to you? In this paper, we will have a look on abused man in Hong Kong and is there any need to have a refuge for them will be discussed. What is domestic violence? Domestic violence is violence that takes place within an intimate relationship and family members. Mostly abuser see themselves as the superior one and they will using their power to control other family members or intimate. There are different medium to abuse others, commonly is physical abuse, besides, there are psychological, sexual, financial control, social isolation and emotional abuse. (Po Leung Kuk, Woman Refugee) In 2010, our government had revised the law to â€Å"Domestic and Cohabitation Relationships Violence Ordinance† which provides civil remedies for victims of family violence. The law stated that â€Å"Spouses or former spouses, heterosexual cohabitants or former heterosexual cohabitants, same-sex cohabitants or former same-sex cohabitants, and other immediate and extended family members can apply to the court for an order against molestation by the other party.† Thus, domestic violence can be appear in both men and women and it is a criminal offence and offenders may be prosecuted. Study of Men and Women using violence It is common that when we discuss domestic violence, we will pop up the image a â€Å"strong† men beaten a â€Å"weak† women, however from the study by Steinmetz (1997a,b,c) found that both men and women may use physical to abuse each other’s in martial conflict, and the percentage was similar, details were below: Study of 54 couples Male Female Thrown objects 39% 31% Pushed or shoved their partners 31% 32% Hit their partners 20% 20% Hit others with an object 10% 10% Study of 52 Canadian college students Male Female Thrown objects 21% 21% Pushed or shoved their partners 17% 13% Hit their partners 13% 13% Hit others with an object 10% 12% Study of 94 randomly selected people Male Female Thrown objects 31% 25% Pushed or shoved their partners 22% 18% Hit their partners 17% 12% Hit others with an object 12% 14% From the three study take part in different place and people, we can see that both men and women react similar to use violence in solving their conflict in marital, especially in the part of â€Å"hit their partners and using object to hit others†, therefore woman also have potential to commit acts of violence in certain circumstances. The study from Steinmetz mainly focused on the medium of using physical to abuse, however, as mentioned before, medium of abused not only in physical but also others types. Current situation in Hong Kong and Others Countries Hong Kong The report of Harmony House state that in recent year, there are risen of abused men case, most of them aged between twenty to twenty four which is 30% of the total case and it rise almost 60% in one year (Oriental Daily, 2013). From their experience, most of their call said that their wives or girlfriend not only physical abuse them, such as kick them and using fingernail to scratches them, women also using psychological abuse towards men, such as ignore their feeling, do not talk with him, using some foul language to abuse him and lower their value at home, sometimes they may urge their husband to watch lust film and make sex to prevent him go out to find the other girls, moreover they may ask for prohibit male to go out with friends and ask him to call home every 5 minutes. Even worst, woman may use the child to threaten the man. Some of the abused men (Apple daily, 2014) (ShingPao, 2014) In addition, social worker Wu Yi Ling from Harmony House said that in the statistic from police between 2011 to 2012, there are 500 married man were experienced in domestic violence, also, statistic from SWD in 2013 also show that there are 692 men were experienced in domestic violence which take 2% of the total domestic violence in Hong Kong, compare to 2012, it increased about 60%. Ms Wu also guess that this is only a few of abused men in Hong Kong since most of them have many hesitation to speak out, seek help and their awareness of domestic violence are weak that they do not think they were abused by their wives or girlfriends. Moreover, from their hotline experience, some cases do not ask for help because they want to maintain the complete family for their child and do not want their child get harm. It shows that men may have some fear from their wife but they can’t find anyplace that can provide them a safety environment to let them take care their children and avoid found by their wife. Actually in the past there is one men refuge in Hong Kong, however in 2005 it was closed. According to the news from oriental daily (2005), the only men refugee in Hong Kong cannot sustain their service since government stop renting the hostel to the organization and they need to use some container located at the farms for chicken as a temp address of the refugees, however the hygiene condition was not satisfy, so the 16 clients should be discharge and some of them may become homeless. Moreover, they criticized that government have gender stereotype in building refugee. From the above discussion, we can see that more and more cases of men suffer in domestic violence were discovered but it is common that they don’t seek help themselves. Although there are some Men’s hotlines provides by SWD, Caritas, Po Leung Kuk and Harmony House and even some group for them but there are no short-term confidential accommodation for them to had protect and men focused counseling service which they may need. Others Countries Similar to Hong Kong, according to the news from the Observer (2010), About two in five of all victims of domestic violence are men, contradicting the widespread impression that it is almost always women who are left battered and bruised. The charitys analysis of statistics on domestic violence shows the number of men attacked by wives or girlfriends is much higher than thought. Its report, Domestic violence mostly sees as a female victim or male perpetrator problem, but from the statistic by Parity show that this is not true. They also said that that men assaulted by their partners are are almost invisible to the authorities such as the police and being ignored, since there are fewer refuges to flee men than women. Moreover, it is largely overlooked by the public or media, in official reports and in government policy, for example in the provision of refuge places in England and Wales are 7,500 for females but only 60 for men. Palmatier (2013) also stated that in the United States, t here is only one shelter for male victims while approximately 1,800 shelters to women and their children. In Canada, there also a domestic violence shelter for men that was run by the late Earl Silverman. It seems that not only Hong Kong, but also others country underestimate the problems of abused men. The reason that the public does not aware the problems and the men do not recognize it may have different reason. Reason that Men doesn’t seek help by social constructs theory The basic assumptions of social constructionism, as described by Crawford Popp (2004) are: (1) Social constructionist focuses on how meaning is created. They suggest that knowledge is an â€Å"account of reality produced collaboratively by a community of knower; knowledge is not only a social product, but a product of a specifically situated society (2) Social construct the power and hierarchy in the society, it shows the result that how one’s differ in status, entitlement, efficacy, self-respect and other traits based on the interactions one is involved in and subjected to. (3) Social construction is a dynamic process. Social constructionists emphasize the complexity of how knowledge is created in social interactions. Knowledge and meanings are not stable or constant; they are co-constructed in interactions with others, negotiated, modified and shifted. People are active in their perception, understanding and sharing of knowledge acquired from their social milieu. It is prudent therefore to consider this process when explaining the social construction of knowledge, including knowledge concerning gender. (4) The individual and society are indissoluble. Social constructionists believed that individuals can create meaning only in relation to what they are exposed to their environment. Paradoxically, the same individuals co-create the meanings that are available in this environment. From the perspective of social construct theory, an individual belief and knowledge are constructed by the social, thus the gender identity is a socially constructed any may vary over time for an individual, it is not a stable, fixed trait. For example, me, I had a belief that I am a girl, and I behave like a â€Å"girl should be† to match the society mainstream value, if not I may be the one that violate the mainstream value and may not accept by the others. Therefore, our gender role are social construct female and male to femininity and masculinity. Each society has a set of expectations, stereotypes and assumptions about what it is to be a man. These can be taken as forming a set of standards regarding what one needs to be and do in order to be a man. For the men situation in Hong Kong, since we are a traditional Chinese society, we belief in some tradition Chinese concept that â€Å"Men are breadwinners while women are housewives Men don’t cry easily not airing ones dirty laundry in public†, those traditional theory construct that the image of men should be strong, cannot ask for help easily and they always as the autonomy role in a family. As we can judged by what we do as a man or as a woman, so that it is common that men believed in those value and do what the gender should be, act to conform to stereotypical gender roles and it is the active engagement in any behavior that is gendered, or behavior that may be evaluated as gendered, for example, when they abused by their wives or girlfriend, they may not reco gnize it is a problem, even they recognize it, to avoid violate the mainstream value and being isolated, they may shame to share with others and only tolerate it. Not only the abused men social constructed their gender role, the public also encourage them to performance in certain way and they should behave like this. For example, daily TV programs, the mainstream media report, advertisement, etc. From the news report by Observer (2010) Men’s rights campaign group Parity’s staff Mays said that Culturally its difficult for men to bring these incidents to the attention of the authorities. Men are reluctant to say that theyve been abused by women, because its seen as unmanly and weak.† Alex Neil from The housing and communities’ minister in the Scottish parliament also said that Both men and women can be victims and we know that men feel under immense pressure to keep up the pretense that everything is OK, Domestic abuse against a man is just as abhorrent as when a woman is the victim. There is common experience share by abused men, and it may the reason that why men have hesitation to seek help from others. Limitation to having a men refuge Although the abused men cases had risen and it is a need to have a men refuge for them, however there are some limitation to urge the men to seek help since they accept the social norms constructed by social and they don’t dare to break the norms so that it is hard for the organization encourage them to be initiative to seek support in the public, for example, Miss Hardie (Daily Mail Report, 2009) said â€Å"There is still a very strong stigma attached to men who say they have been the victims of domestic violence. Most of our referrals will only have decided to come forward after being taken to hospital.† The situation may be similar in Hong Kong, since there are limit case were found in public and the stigma to men were strong too. It may take several years to educate the public and arise their awareness on men’s victim in domestic violence. Conclusion To conclude, research focused on abused men is limit, it seems that it is not a controversial topic over the world, however, the cases of abused men in Hong Kong or others countries has risen in recent years, it may be a signal for us to pay attention the need of them and arise the public awareness to the problems of men victim in domestic violence. Although there are some limitation that men may not take initial to use the service of refuge immediately, but similar to women refuge, though education and promote a new value to public via media or government promotion though the value of â€Å"gender mainstreaming† in their advertisement or on policy to strive for gender equality may reduce the stigma attached to men, and therefore may have a new social constructed gender role to men. So I think whatever the usage rate of the refugee, there is a need to provide a place and focused counseling service for male victim in domestic violence. References Campbell, Denis (2010, Sep 5). More than 40% of domestic violence victims are male,  report reveals. The Observer. Retrieved from  http://www.theguardian.com/society/2010/sep/05/men-victims-domestic-violence   First refuges for battered husbands offer support to male victims (2009, Feb 16). Daily  Mail Reporter. Retrieved form  http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-1146783/First-refuges-battered-husbands-offer-support-male-victims.html   Gender equality, Wife battered men more than 500 cases a year, estimate that is just a tip  of the iceberg (2014, Feb 17). Apple Daily. Retrieved from  http://hk.apple.nextmedia.com/news/art/20140217/18627552 Hong Kong Ordinances. (2009). CAP 189 Domestic and cohabitation relationships  violence ordinance. Retrieved from  www.hklii.hk/eng/hk/legis/ord/189/ Marecek, J., Crawford, M., Popp, D. (2004). On the Construction of Gender, Sex, and  Sexualities. In A.H. Eagly, A.E. Beall, R.J. Sternberg (Eds.), The Psychology of Gender (pp. 192-216). New York: Guilford Press. Men refuge will close today (2005, May 5). Oriental Daily. Retrieved from  http://orientaldaily.on.cc/archive/20050505/new/new_a82cnt.html Palmatier, Tara J. (2013, Oct 1). Domestic Violence Awareness Month: The Invisible Victims. A Voice for Men.com. Retrieved from  http://www.avoiceformen.com/mens-rights/activism/domestic-violence-awareness-month-the-invisible-victims/ Searchlights: Aggressive, Jealous, Out of Control, Male cannot do anything (2013, Nov  5). Oriental Daily. Retrieved from  http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20131105/00176_126.html See-Fung, Liu (2014, July 13). Men also battered by women, abused not only for female.  Singpao. Retrieved from  http://www.singpao.com/xw/yw/201407/t20140713_518068.html Steinmetz, Suzanne K. (1977a). Cycle of Violence: Assertive, Aggressive and Abusive  Family Interactions. New York: Praeger. Steinmetz, Suzanne K. (1977b). The Battered Husband Syndrome. Vol. 2 (3-4), pp. 501–503. USA. Steinmetz, Suzanne K. (1977c). The Use of Force for Resolving Family Conflict: The  Training Ground for Abuse. The Family Coordinator. Vol. 26 (1), pp. 19–26. doi:10.2307/581856. Yuen-Nam, Chan (2013, Nov 5). Searchlights: Hong Kong female abuse male partner getting younger. Oriental Daily. Retrieved from  http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20131105/00176_125.html Properties of Iron: An Introduction Properties of Iron: An Introduction LIYI WEN Iron Physical properties Iron is a silvery-white or light gray metallic. It is ductile and malleable. Toughness is the ability to be involved in the thread. Scalability is the ability to be hammered into thin sheets. It is naturally present in only three of a magnetic element. The other two are nickel and cobalt Iron having high tensile strength. Stretching device, which can be stretched without breaking. Iron is also very feasible. Operability is the ability to bend, roll, hammer, cut, shape, form, or else with the work is to make a metal to a desired shape or thickness. The melting point of pure iron is 1536 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™ (2,797  ° F), its boiling point is about 3000 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™ (5400  ° F). Its density is 7.87 grams per cubic centimeter. Other physical properties of the melting point, boiling point, iron and steel alloys may differ. http://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/zinc-thin-steel-sheet-galvanized-roofing_450540055.html Classification: Transition Metal The position on the periodic table: Iron is the 26th element on the periodic table. It is located in period 4 and group 8. Electron shell configuration: 2, 8,14,2 à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ 3à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Electron_shell_026_Iron.svg Background Iron is one of Earths most common elements. Nearly every construction of man contains at least a little iron. It is also one of the oldest metals, and at least 3,500 years ago, was first shaped into useful and decorative objects. Ferrite is a soft, white metal. Although iron is a common element, iron is almost never found in nature. The only pure iron known to exist naturally comes from fallen meteorites. Most iron is made of iron and other elements combine to form a mineral discovery. Iron oxides are the most common. In those minerals near the surface of the earth, with the highest in the commercial exploitation of iron ore and iron content is known. Iron ore is converted by multiple processes for all types of iron. The most commonly used process is the use of blast furnace to produce pig iron, iron and about 92-94% carbon 3-5% with a small amount of other elements. Iron has only limited use, and most of the iron into steel current where it is added to further reduce the carbon content and other elements, such as manganese, nickel, steel get into the unique properties of various steel alloys. à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ 4à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœhttp://tabbiestravels.blogspot.com.au/2013/03/sloss-furnaces-in-birmingham-al.html History Historians believe that the Egyptians were the first people with small amounts of iron, about five or six thousand years ago to work. They apparently used a metal extracted from meteorites. What is considered the iron mining and smelting point, the evidence in the first example of ancient Hittite culture is now Turkey’s. Because iron is used in the manufacture of weapons and tools far superior than any other known metallic materials, their production is a closely guarded secret. However, the basic technique is simple, the use of iron and gradually spread. For example, because it is useful for comparison with other materials, iron has disadvantages. Quality tools made à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹from it are highly variable, depending on the ore is taken from, and the method for extracting iron area. In particular, the importance of the carbon and metal hardness; chemically change to occur in the extraction process is not understood in. Practices vary greatly in different regions of the world. There is evidence, for example, Chinese people can melt very early iron tools, and amazing accomplishments of a small amount of steel production in Japan, as evidenced by the heirloom sword dating back centuries. A similar breakthrough in the Middle East and in India, but the process has never appeared in other parts of the world. For centuries, Europeans lack methods, iron heated to the melting point of all. Production of iron ore and wood they burn slowly in a clay -lined oven. Iron separated from the surrounding rock, but never completely melted. Instead, it forms a hard shell of slag removal hammer. This repeated process of heating and hammering iron oxide mixed with oxygen to produce iron and carbon is removed from the metal. The result was nearly pure iron, easily shaped with hammers and tongs but too soft to take and keep a good edge. Because the metal is shaped, or forged, by hammering, it came to be known as wrought iron. Tools and weapons ba ck to Europe from the East that has been cast into the shape of iron speak. Retain more carbon, iron harder than wrought iron, will hold a frontier. However, it is more brittle than wrought iron. Eastern Europe fixers know better iron, but do not participate in shaping a stronger ironwork process. Entire nations launched efforts to discover the process. The first known European breakthrough in the production of cast iron , which quickly led to the first practical steel, did not come until 1740 , in this year , the melting point of the material Benjamin Huntsman took out a patent for the production of steel springs to use the watch manufacturer . In the next 20 years or so, the process becomes more widely adopted. Huntsman is used to melt iron in the blast furnace of clay crucible. He then carefully added value measurements of pure carbon to molten metal. The resulting alloy is both strong and flexible, when cast into a spring. Since Huntsman initially only interested in making a bet ter clock, his crucible steel led directly to the marine chronometer, which in turn makes the development of a global navigation to determine their east / west position by allowing the sailors accurately. In fact, he also invented the modern metallurgy is a side effect, he apparently did not notice. à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ 5à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœhttp://www.rosssea.info/meteorites.html A detailed description of the historical use of the iron metal and the iron metal on society: Iron objects have been found in Egypt dating from around 3500 BC. They contain about 7.5% nickel, which indicates that they were of meteoric origin. Asia Minor, todays Turkey, the ancient Hittites, were the first to smelt iron from its ores around 1500 BC and this new, stronger, metal gave them economic and political power. Iron age began. Certain types of iron, it is obviously better than others depending on the carbon content, although this is not realized. Some ore containing vanadium production called Damascus steel, ideal sword. The first person to explain the various types of iron was Renà © Antoine Ferchault de Rà ©aumur who wrote a book on the subject in 1722. This explained how steel, wrought iron, and cast iron, were to be distinguished by the amount of charcoal (carbon) they contained. The Industrial Revolution which began that same century relied extensively on this metal. à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ 6à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœhttp://eofdreams.com/sword.html Extraction Iron ore has undergone several stages between the final product and steel. In the first stage, iron ore, limestone and coke is heated (pure carbon) in a blast furnace. Blast is a very large oven temperature can reach 1500 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™ (2700  ° F). Removed in blast furnaces, coke oxygen from iron ore: Removing iron impurities limestone. Iron produced by this method is about 91-92% pure. The main impurities are left from the coke used in the furnace. This form is called pig iron. Pig iron is usually too brittle (it breaks too easily) to use in most products. Most scientists believe that the Earths core consists of a lot of iron. Many methods have been developed for the purification of iron. Common method used today is known as the basic oxygen process. In this process, molten pig iron in a large oven. Then pure oxygen gas is blown through the molten pig iron. Oxygen to burn more carbon in the iron: Though now obsolete, once the main source of heat iron stove for families, as well as the means for cooking. A small amount of carbon remains in the iron. The iron produced in this reaction is known as steel. The term steel actually refers to a wide variety of products. The various forms of steel all contain iron and carbon. They also contain one or more other elements, such as silicon, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, cobalt, nickel, zirconium, molybdenum, and tungsten. Two other steel-like products are cast iron and wrought iron. Cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon. Wrought iron contains iron and any one or more of many other elements. In general, however, tends to contain little wrought carbon. à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ 7à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ËœBlast Furnace à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ 8à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ËœIron à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ 9à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœiron ore à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ 10à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ËœSteel [7] http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/launch_ani_blast_furnace.shtml [8] http://images-of-elements.com/iron.php [9] http://www.indiamart.com/whitehawk-online-services/products.html [10] http://www.triamericasteel.com/ Isolation Isolation: It usually does not require laboratory with iron, because it is possible to buy. A small amount of pure iron can be performed by purification of crude iron with carbon monoxide. In this process, the middle is iron pentacarbonyl, Fe (CO) 5. Carbonyl decomposed by heating to about 250 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™, to form a pure iron powder. Fe + CO → Fe(CO)5 (250 °C) → Fe + 5CO The Fe(CO)5 is a volatile oily complex which is easily flushed from the reaction vessel leaving the impurities behind. Other routes to small samples of pure iron include the reduction of iron oxide, Fe2O3, with hydrogen, H2. Almost all of the iron used in the commercial production of iron and steel industry, with a blast furnace. Most chemistry textbooks covered the blast furnace process. In essence, iron oxide, iron oxide, and reduce the carbon (coke), although the actual reducing agent may be in a furnace carbon monoxide, CO. 2Fe2O3 + 3C → 4Fe + 3CO2 This process is one of the most significant industrial processes in history and the origins of the modern process are traceable back to a small town called Coalbrookdale in Shropshire (England) around the year 1773. http://www.e-fab.com.au/post_category-articles_item-global%20crude%20steel%20production%20the%20numbers%20tell%20the%20story.html The effect of iron on society: Transportation: boats, planes, cars, buses and motorcycles. †¦.. Military equipment: guns, artillery and tanks†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Household items: knives, pots and hangers†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Appliances: microwave ovens, refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines water heaters and computers†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Buildings: Sydney Harbour Bridge and the Eiffel Tower†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Alloy: A hard, brittle, nonmalleable iron-carbon alloy, cast into to shape, containing 2 to 4.5 percent carbon, 0.5 to 3 percent silicon, and lesser amounts of sulphur, manganese, and phosphorus. Color Density 1260 2300 Grey 6800 7800kg/m3 3600 6512 Black 2.26 g/cm3 1420 2599 Gray 2.33 g/cm3 1260 2300 Silver 1.738 g/cm3 1530 2786 Gray 7.874 g/cm3 [11] = [12] + [13]+[14] + [11]Cast iron: www.indiamart.com250 [12] Iron: http://images-of-elements.com/iron.php [13] Carbon: http://www.e-reful.com/products/pr_pic_836.html [14] Silicon: www.indiamart.com [15] magnesium: http://alphachemicals.com/magnesium_chips___large Time line of iron References: Physical properties: Chemistry Explained-iron- Powered by JRank http://www.chemistryexplained.com/elements/C-K/Iron.html http://www.chemicalelements.com/groups/transition.html The position on the periodic table: http://chemistry.about.com/od/iron/ss/Where-Is-Iron-Found-On-The-Periodic-Table.htm . http://www.chemistry.patentinvent.com/chemistry/electron_configuration.html Historical account: How Products Are Made-Iron http://www.madehow.com/Volume-2/Iron.html ROYAL SOCIETY OF CHEMISTRY-Periodic Table-History http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/26/iron ROYAL SOCIETY OF CHEMISTRY-Periodic Table-Extraction http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/26/iron https://www.webelements.com/iron/electronegativity.html [PDF]Page by Alex GuanPage by . –properties of elements: http://www.garelicksteel.com/pdfs/Melting_Points_of_Common_Metals.pdf http://periodictable.com/Properties/A/Density.al.html http://periodictable.com/Properties/A/Color.al.html http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_colour_of_cast_iron#slide=1article=What_is_the_colour_of_cast_iron http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/metal-alloys-densities-d_50.html https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/articles/b/britain_in_the_iron_age.aspx http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_China http://www.madehow.com/Volume-2/Iron.html

cuban missle crisis :: essays research papers

The Cuban Missile Crisis demonstrates Advocacy versus Inquiry approaches as discussed in â€Å"What You Don’t Know About Making Decisions† by David A. Garvin and Michael A. Roberto. It also displays the Double Approach-Avoidance decisions that we studied in â€Å"Conflict† by Dennis Coon. Finally, the steps taken by John F. Kennedy display the steps described by Dennis Coon in his writing â€Å"Coping with Conflict†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Once President Kennedy learned of the missiles in Cuba he formed a committee, EXCOMM, to discuss the appropriate course of action to deal with the weapons. During the meetings three options were presented: The first was to take a political course of actions to begin talks with Cuba. This was quickly dismissed because no members of the committee believed that these talks would be successful. The second option was continued surveillance combined with a blockade. Finally, the third option was military action.(Wiersma and Larson 6) This is an example of Double Approach-Avoidance because both option number two and option number three had positive and negative qualities. Option number two allowed the United States to apply pressure on Cuba without declaring war; however this approach could take a long time to eliminate the threat of weapons and could supply Cuba with time to hide their weapons. Option number three would quickly destroy Cuba’s weapons which was desirable, But Kennedy did not want to declare war because it most likely would upset Alliances and would be costly in American lives. During the discussions of the committee they wavered back and forth between option two and three. Indecisiveness is a common occurrence when a double approach-avoidance decision has to be made.(Coon 202) The Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Air Force were adamant that the US proceed with military action and tried to persuade the group to their way of thinking. The Joint Chiefs of Staff would be an example of the Advocacy Approach. John F. Kennedy asked a lot of questions about the possible outcomes of each option. He wanted to know how the US would be perceived, what the costs were, and how quickly we would see results from each of the options. John F. Kennedy would be an example of the Inquiry Approach. On Day four of the EXCOMM talks a majority decision was reached. There were still dissenters and they remained that way. John F. Kennedy liked the idea of the blockade because it provided Cuba with a way out of the crisis.

Dealing with Dog Waste

DEALING WITH DOG WASTE Identification and Definition a problem Context: A 2009 research report by Zero2IPO claims that the number of pets in China has grown 500% from 1999 to 2007. There are now estimated 200 million-plus pets in China and this number is expected to grow to 500 million by 2015 China, the world's most populous nation, has about 150 million pet dogs, about one for every nine people. An average Chinese city has about 100,000 dogs and gains about 10,000 per year, while large cities can have twice as many. Beijing had more than 500,000 pet dogs in 2004. Registered dogs in Beijing increased 16% this year, reaching 530,000 dogs. But the actual number of dogs in Beijing is actually much higher. The Social and Environmental Impacts of Uncollected Dog Waste Dog waste in urban areas is a largely ignored issue that is nevertheless the source of serious social and environmental problems. Dog waste presents a problem at two stages of waste management: collection and disposal. Picking up: the Collection of Dog Waste Uncollected dog waste can negatively affect park aesthetics as well as public health and safety. It can also damage turf and other vegetation. In natural parks or along the edge of water bodies, accumulating dog waste can adversely impact sensitive habitat areas. On a broader level, uncollected dog waste is an environmental issue. Nonhuman waste can be a significant source of bacterial contamination in urban watersheds. While livestock is the major source of this problem in rural areas, dogs (along with dense populations of wild birds such as seagulls or Canada geese) are typically the source of contamination in urban areas. Pathogens found in animal waste that is â€Å"zoonotic†Ã¢â‚¬â€œcapable of being transmitted to humans from animals–are the major cause of concern. If ingested, some of these pathogens (including Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Salmonella among others) may result in serious illness or even death. Roundworm and hookworm infections are the zoonotic diseases most commonly associated with dog waste, although only waste from infected dogs carry these parasites. A comparison of three resident surveys about cleaning up after dogs. StudySurvey Results Beijing(1999)†¢ 62% always cleaned up after the dog, 23% sometimes, 15% never †¢ Disposal method: trash can (66%), toilet (12%), other 22% Shanghai(2004)†¢ 51% of dog owners do not walk dogs †¢ 69% claimed that they cleaned up after the dog †¢ 31% do not pick up †¢ Disposal methods: trash can 54%, toilet 20%, compost pile 4% †¢ 4% train pet to poop in own yard †¢ 85% agreed that pet wastes contribute to water quality problems Wuhan(2009)†¢ 44% of dog owners do not walk dogs †¢ Dog walkers who clean up most/all of the time 59% †¢ Dog walkers who never or rarely cleanup 41% Of those who never or rarely clean up, 44% would not cleanup even with fine, complaints, or improved sanitary collection or disposal methods †¢ 63% agreed that pet wastes contribute to water quality problems Table 1 Among those residents surveyed, the most common reasons for dog owner’s behavior in terms of dealing with their dog’s waste are p rovided below: Reasons for not picking it upReasons for picking up †¢ because it eventually goes away †¢ embarrassed †¢ too much work †¢ not prepared †¢ no reason †¢ small dog, small waste †¢ use as fertilizer †¢ sanitary reasons †¢ Cleaner will clean No awareness†¢ it's the law †¢ environmental reasons †¢ hygiene/health reasons †¢ Personal courtesy †¢ it should be done †¢ keep the park clean Table 2 Symptoms: Why many pedestrian do not want to go to park especially elders and children? Dogs leave excretion at random in the grass or in the path. The unbearable smelly odor drives people away. They are afraid of being bite by the dog. Many people get sick after a close contact with dog. No one wants to use the amenity or recreation facilities in the park due to the dirty leaved by dogs. Why the crap always can be seen in the park? Many people walk their dog in the public area, and they don’t collect the pet’s manure. Why doesn’t the owner collect the excretion? Refer to the table2. Problem: People lack awareness and tools to collect the drops. Traditional Dog Waste Disposal Get a good pooper scooper. I hate to point out the obvious, but really, just pick it up. Problem solved. Swing by your local hardware store or any pet store and pick up a poop scooper that works for you. There are several varieties with varying lengths and scoop apparatus. If you can find someone to help you, all the better. Get the lucky individual to follow you around with a bucket while you scoop and deposit dog poo into the bucket. It’s advisable to try to avoid hitting your helper’s fingers. Dig a hole for depositing poop in. This is another simple and effective idea. If in your yard you have an area far away from most activity or just a good place to designate as a poop graveyard, grab a shovel and get to work. Only you know how much dog poop you have to dispose of, so use your judgment when deciding how big of a hole to dig. Just make sure to dig the hole at least a foot deep. If you have the energy, go for two feet. You will also need to be certain of where wires and cables have been buried. That would not be a very dignified death. Invest in some dog poop bags. Whether you walk your dog for exercise or just plain don’t have a good place for your dog to drop a dooker, keep a few poop bags in your pocket for quick dog poop cleanup. I know it’s not the most appetizing prospect, but it’s really not that bad. Using poop bags is easy and fairly sanitary. Put your hand in the dog poop bag, grab the dog poop with the bag, turn the bag inside out with your other hand, and tie it up. Hire a pet waste removal service. If dog waste removal ain’t your style or you simply can’t find enough hours in the day to take care of the dog’s business, there are people out there who’ll be happy to take your dog poop as long as it’s accompanied by a little cash. They’re pretty easy to find, too. Grab a phonebook or hit the interwebs. Most folks who subscribe to this service set it up so someone comes out weekly or biweekly. If for some reason this service isn’t available in your area, just hire a neighbor kid. Dog training 101. Strategic poop locations are key. If you have the time and the inclination, start training your dog to choose the same region of the yard for pooping every time. While training books are readily available and supply much more detail, the Cliff’s Notes version is simply persistence and positive reinforcement. Once the training is complete, you will never regret it. Having the poop in a concentrated area will significantly cut down the time it takes for poop patrol. Contaminations: Fecal coliforms. Fecal coliforms, such as E. coli, are abundantly present in dog poop. These microorganisms can make the water that we rely on for fishing, swimming, and drinking unsafe. Effects of E. coli can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, and headaches. Roundworms. Roundworm eggs can be found in dog feces and can be easily transferred to other hosts through ingestion. This is especially dangerous if you have a dog that eats poop. Unfortunately, this is a pretty common behavior. Humans are at risk, too; children in particular. Not because kids generally make a habit of eating poo, but they do frequently put their hands in their mouths regardless of what they’ve been doing. Giardia. Another parasite sometimes found in dog feces that can be transferred to animals and humans through ingestion is giardia. Giardia is generally the culprit for Montezuma’s revenge and causes diarrhea, cramping, and abdominal pain. Most commonly it is contracted through the drinking of water that has been tainted by feces. Salmonella. Salmonella can also be found in and spread by dog feces. It can be transferred from dog to dog or even from dog to human. Avoid feeding your dog any uncooked meats or eggs. Statistics: The law enacted in other cities and the effectiveness of the law. The Law New York City’s Dog Poop Scoop Law How much do you know about New York City’s dog poop scoop law? According to Section 161. 03 of the New York City Health Code, your there are a lot of places where your dog can’t poop: a) A person who owns, possesses or controls a dog, cat or other animal shall not permit the animal to commit a nuisance on a sidewalk of any public place, on a floor, wall, stairway or roof of any public or private premises used in common by the public, or on a fence, wall or stairway of a building abutting on a public place. Who can issue you a ticket if your dog poops and you don’t scoop? Authorized employees of New York City’s Departments of Health, Sanitation, or Parks and Recreation. England, Scotland and Wales The Litter (Animal Droppings) Order 1991 of the Environmental Protection Act (1990) places a duty on local authorities to keep the following areas clear of dog faeces; †¢Any public walk or pleasure ground †¢Any land laid out as a garden or used for the purpose of recreation †¢Any part of the seashore which is frequently used by large numbers of people, and managed by the person having direct control of it as a tourist resort or recreational facility †¢Any esplanade or promenade Any land not forming part of the highway or, in Scotland, a public road, which is open to the air, which the public are permitted to use on foot only, and which provides access to retail premises †¢A trunk road picnic area †¢A picnic site. Northern Ireland The Litter (Northern Ireland) Order 1993 section 6 gives local authorities the duty to keep i ts relevant land or any relevant road for which it is responsible, clear of litter and refuse (including dog faeces). Prosecution of Dog owners who fail to clear up In England and Wales The Dogs (Fouling of Land) Act 1996, allows authorities to designate any land in their area as poop scoop areas without any requirement to provide signs or dog waste bins The land must be publicly accessible and open to the air, however the following areas are not included: †¢Carriageways with a speed limit of more than 40 mph †¢Land used for agriculture or woodlands †¢Land which is predominantly marshland, moor or heath †¢Rural common land The penalty for not clearing up dog fouling can be up to ? 1,000 if taken to court, but there is also provision for a fixed penalty scheme with a fine of ? 0 in England. In England the main legislation relating to dog fouling is dealt with under the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (Part IV). Exceptions to the offence are: †¢The person in charge of the dog has a reasonable excuse for not clearing up (being unaware of the fouling or not having the means to clean up is not an excuse) †¢The owner or occupier of the land has consented to the faeces being left †¢The person puts the faeces in a bin on the land †¢The person in charge of the dog has a registered visual impairment In Northern Ireland Under the Litter (Northern Ireland) Order 1994, it is an offence for the owner of a dog to not to clear up after their dog if it has left faeces on publicly accessible land. The penalty is up to ? 500. The fixed penalty rate is ? 10. In Scotland The Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982 section 48 makes it an offence to allow a dog to foul a footpath, local authority grass verge, a local authority pedestrian precinct and any local authority maintained recreation or sports ground. The fine is up to ? 500. What can I do about a dog fouling offence? To report an offence contact your local authority to find out what the dog control procedures are in your area, and make note of the following details: †¢Name and address of the person in charge of the dog †¢A description of the dog †¢Details of the date, time and location of the offence. If the fouling takes place at regular times it may be possible for dog wardens to witness the fouling. In most cases the wardens will warn the offender before taking legal action, which is usually enough to deter further offences. Dog Warden Scheme This is one of the most effective ways of tackling the dog fouling problem. The dog warden has 3 important roles in the community: †¢Enforcement – enforcing the legislation relating to dog fouling, dogs in general and local bye-laws †¢Educational – to promote responsible attitudes to dog ownership, to develop an understanding of the role of the dog warden and how the public can be supportive †¢Practical – handling and securing stray dogs, dealing with problems relating to noisy and nuisance dogs. Effectiveness of the law binding: Low effectiveness not because of being lazy but because it just a bizarre practice to pick up the dog shit. So only 10% of the citizens would pick up the dog poop in daily life, besides recruiting and keeping dog warden is a very huge investment, the way to collect evidences is also a difficult aspect due to the large area to supervise and lots of cameras need to install to spot the crime. There is one opinion cited below will back up the statement that so few people will obey the law Embarrassment No matter what the size or breed of dog, there has always been one inevitable constant—poop. Oh yeah, lots of it, folks. Brown poop, green poop, runny poop, and even some very pretty poop thanks to those dogs who liked to chew things up and swallow the little bits. Because our family was never real big on walking the dogs, our front yard had a tendency to become a minefield of smelly brown bombs. And guess whose job it was to go around and clean it all up? I can’t take all the credit as I had brothers who were thrown into the party, as well, but I think you get the picture. Of all the chores that we had, going on â€Å"poop patrol† was the one our dad derived the most pleasure out of making us do. The guy just loved to stand above us on the deck, laugh maniacally, and point out all the little piles that we had missed. Our poop scoop technology wasn’t very advanced. One of us (the lucky one) would carry a spade shovel around the yard while the other (not so lucky) followed with a five-gallon pail lined with a garbage bag. What we all carried was a big steaming pile of embarrassment about the chore at hand. A close eye was kept on the street for friends who might by passing by. If one was spotted, we immediately dropped what we were doing so we could pretend to be doing anything other than picking up dog crap. These are the memories that haunt me. Although the law has little effective but the law is inevitable in arising human’s awareness. Once the behavior become a social norm It has reached a point where it's socially unacceptable to leave your dog's poop on the sidewalk or in someone else's beautiful front garden for some innocent wanderer to accidentally step in and track all over their car or house. It keeps areas with frequent city traffic looking tidy and clean. It's just something that is done. Description of our product: Magic rod ? Magic rod ? Magic rod I is the portable one. Description: The length of the rod is about half meter when the stick is pulled out to the most. There is a button at the upper end of the rod, the scoop will open when press the button and then the waste will be picked up and sealed in the disposable bag. After that the owner need to takes out the bag and throw it to the trash bin. Magic rod ? is the multi-functional one Description: This is for rent; the multi-functions not only comprise the main function of picking poop but also can be used as a walking stick, chair for the aging group which prefer to walk dog, exercise in the morning. The big round plate which has two hole inside is a handle but it can transform to a chair when press down. And the stick is collapsible, push in the stick to a certain height in order to adapt to your comfort. After picking up the excrement you can lean the magic rod to a certain angle and drag it to anywhere, there is a wheel in each of the leg which enables the host to drag like dragging a travel suitcase. Our marketing Methods: http://www. getridofthings. com/get-rid-of-dog-poop. htm

How to Find the Meaning and Origin of Your Surname

How to Find the Meaning and Origin of Your Surname With a few exceptions, hereditary surnames- the last names passed down through the male family lines- didnt exist until about 1000 years ago. While it may be hard to believe in todays world of passports and retinal scans, surnames just werent necessary before that. The world  was much less crowded than it is today, and most folks never ventured more than a few miles from their place of birth.  Every man knew his neighbors, so  first, or given names, were the only designations necessary.  Even kings got by with a single name. During the middle ages, as families got bigger and villages got a bit more crowded, individual names became inadequate to distinguish friends and neighbors from one another. One John might be called John son of William to distinguish him from his neighbor, John the smith, or his friend John of the dale. These secondary names, werent quite yet the surnames as we know them today, however, because they werent passed down from father to son. John, son of William, for example, might have a son known as Robert, the fletcher (arrow maker). Last names that were passed down unchanged from one generation to the next first came into use in Europe about 1000 A.D., beginning in southern areas and gradually spreading northward. In many countries, the use of hereditary surnames began with the nobility who often called themselves after their ancestral seats. Many of the gentry, however, did not adopt surnames until the 14th century, and it was not until about 1500 A.D. that most surnames became inherited and no longer transformed with a change in a persons appearance, job, or place of residence. Surnames, for the most part, drew their meanings from the lives of men in the Middle Ages, and their origins can be divided into four main categories: Patronymic Surnames Patronymics- last names derived from a fathers name- were widely used in forming surnames, especially in the Scandinavian countries. Occasionally, the name of the mother contributed the surname, referred to as a matronymic surname. Such names were formed by adding a prefix or suffix denoting either son of or daughter of. English and Scandinavian names ending in son are patronymic surnames, as are many names prefixed with the Gaelic Mac, the Norman Fitz, the Irish O, and the Welsh ap. Examples: The son of John (Johnson), son of Donald (MacDonald), son of Patrick (Fitzpatrick), son of Brien (OBrien), son of Howell (ap Howell). Place Names or Local Names One of the most common ways to differentiate one man from his neighbor was to describe him in terms of his geographic surroundings or location (similar to describing a friend as the one who lives down the street). Such local names denoted some of the earliest instances of surnames in France, and were quickly introduced into England by the Norman nobility who chose names based on the locations of their ancestral estates. If a person or family migrated from one place to another, they were often identified by the place they came from. If they lived near a stream, cliff, forest, hill, or other geographic feature, this might be used to describe them. Some last names can still be traced back to their exact place of origin, such as a particular city or county, while others have origins lost in obscurity (Atwood lived near a wood, but we dont know which one). Compass directions were another common geographic identification in the Middle Ages (Eastman, Westwood). Most geographic-based surname s are easy to spot, though the evolution of language has made others less obvious, i.e. Dunlop (muddy hill). Examples: Brooks lived along a brook; Churchill lived near a church on a hill; Neville came from Neville-Seine-Maritime, France or Neuville (New Town), a common place name in France; Parris came from- you guessed it- Paris, France. Descriptive Names (Nicknames) Another class of surnames, those derived from a physical or other characteristic of ​the  first bearer, make up an estimated 10% of all surname or family names. These descriptive surnames are thought to have originally evolved as nicknames during the Middle Ages when men created nicknames or pet names for his neighbors and friends based on personality or physical appearance. Thus, Michael the strong became Michael Strong and black-haired Peter became Peter Black. Sources for such nicknames included: an unusual size or shape of the body, bald heads, facial hair, physical deformities, distinctive facial features, skin or hair coloring, and even emotional disposition. Examples: Broadhead, a person with a large head; Baines (bones), a thin man; Goodman, a generous individual; Armstrong, strong in the arm Occupational Names The last class of surnames to develop reflect the occupation or status of the first bearer. These occupational last names, derived from the specialty crafts and trades of the medieval period, are fairly self-explanatory. A Miller was essential for grinding flour from grain, a Wainwright was a wagon builder, and Bishop was in the employ of a Bishop. Different surnames often developed from the same occupation based on the language of the country of origin (Mà ¼ller, for example, is German for Miller). Examples:  Alderman, an official clerk of the court; Taylor, one that makes or repairs garments; Carter, a maker/driver of carts; Outlaw, an outlaw or criminal Despite these basic surname classifications, many last names  or surnames of today seem to defy explanation. The majority of these are probably corruptions of the original surnames- variations that have become disguised almost beyond recognition.  Surname spelling  and pronunciation has evolved over many centuries, often making it hard for current generations to determine the origin and evolution of their surnames. Such  family name derivations, resulting from a variety of factors, tend to confound both genealogists and etymologists. It is fairly common for different branches of the same family to carry different last names, as the majority of English and American surnames have, in their history, appeared in four to more than a dozen variant spellings. Therefore, when researching the origin of your surname, it is important to work your way back through the generations in order to determine the  original family name, as the surname that you carry now may have an entirely different meaning than the surname of your distant ancestor. It is also important to remember that some surnames, though their origins may appear obvious, arent what they seem. Banker, for example, is not an occupational surname, instead meaning dweller on a hillside.

Rules and Standards for Patent Drawings

Rules and Standards for Patent Drawings There are two acceptable categories for presenting drawings in utility and design patent applications: Black Ink: Black and white drawings are normally required. India ink, or its equivalent that secures solid black lines, must be used for drawings.Color: On rare occasions, color drawings may be necessary as the only practical medium by which to disclose the subject matter sought to be patented in a utility or design patent application or the subject matter of a statutory invention registration. The color drawings must be of sufficient quality such that all details in the drawings are reproducible in black and white in the printed patent. Color drawings are not permitted in international applications under patent treaty rule PCT 11.13, or in an application, or copy thereof, submitted under the electronic filing system (for utility applications only). The Office will accept color drawings in utility or design patent applications and statutory invention registrations only after granting a petition filed under this paragraph explaining why the color drawings are necessary. Any such petition must include the following: Patent petition fee 1.17 h - $130.00Three sets of color drawings, a black and white photocopy that accurately depicts the subject matter shown in the color drawingAn amendment to the specification to insert the following to be the first paragraph of the brief description of the drawings: The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee. Photographs Black and White: Photographs, including photocopies of photographs, are not ordinarily permitted in utility and design patent applications. The Office will accept photographs in utility and design patent applications, however, if photographs are the only practicable medium for illustrating the claimed invention. For example, photographs or photomicrographs of: electrophoresis gels, blots (e.g., immunological, western, Southern, and northern), autoradiographs, cell cultures (stained and unstained), histological tissue cross sections (stained and unstained), animals, plants, in vivo imaging, thin layer chromatography plates, crystalline structures, and, in a design patent application, ornamental effects, are acceptable. If the subject matter of the application admits of illustration by a drawing, the examiner may require a drawing in place of the photograph. The photographs must be of sufficient quality so that all details in the photographs are reproducible in the printed patent. Color Photographs: Color photographs will be accepted in utility and design patent applications if the conditions for accepting color drawings and black and white photographs have been satisfied. Identification of Drawings Identifying indicia, if provided, should include the title of the invention, inventors name, and application number, or docket number (if any) if an application number has not been assigned to the application. If this information is provided, it must be placed on the front of each sheet and centered within the top margin. Graphic Forms In Drawings Chemical or mathematical formulae, tables, and waveforms may be submitted as drawings and are subject to the same requirements as drawings. Each chemical or mathematical formula must be labeled as a separate figure, using brackets when necessary, to show that information is properly integrated. Each group of waveforms must be presented as a single figure, using a common vertical axis with time extending along the horizontal axis. Each individual waveform discussed in the specification must be identified with a separate letter designation adjacent to the vertical axis. Type of Paper Drawings submitted to the Office must be made on paper which is flexible, strong, white, smooth, non-shiny, and durable. All sheets must be reasonably free from cracks, creases, and folds. Only one side of the sheet may be used for the drawing. Each sheet must be reasonably free from erasures and must be free from alterations, overwritings, and interlineations. Photographs must be developed on paper meeting the sheet-size requirements and the margin requirements (see below and next page). Sheet Size All drawing sheets in an application must be the same size. One of the shorter sides of the sheet is regarded as its top. The size of the sheets on which drawings are made must be: 21.0 cm. by 29.7 cm. (DIN size A4), or21.6 cm. by 27.9 cm. (8 1/2 by 11 inches) Margin Requirements The sheets must not contain frames around the sight (i.e., the usable surface), but should have scan target points (i.e., cross-hairs) printed on two catercorner margin corners. Each sheet must include: a top margin of at least 2.5 cm. (1 inch)a left side margin of at least 2.5 cm. (1 inch)a right side margin of at least 1.5 cm. (5/8 inch)and a bottom margin of at least 1.0 cm. (3/8 inch)thereby leaving a sight no greater than 17.0 cm. by 26.2 cm. on 21.0 cm. by 29.7 cm. (DIN size A4) drawing sheetsand a sight no greater than 17.6 cm. by 24.4 cm. (6 15/16 by 9 5/8 inches) on 21.6 cm. by 27.9 cm. (8 1/2 by 11 inch) drawing sheets Views The drawing must contain as many views as necessary to show the invention. The views may be plan, elevation, section, or perspective views. Detail views of portions of elements, on a larger scale if necessary, may also be used. All views of the drawing must be grouped together and arranged on the sheet(s) without wasting space, preferably in an upright position, clearly separated from one another, and must not be included in the sheets containing the specifications, claims, or abstract. Views must not be connected by projection lines and must not contain center lines. Waveforms of electrical signals may be connected by dashed lines to show the relative timing of the waveforms. Exploded Views: Exploded views, with the separated parts embraced by a bracket, to show the relationship or order of assembly of various parts are permissible. When an exploded view is shown in a figure which is on the same sheet as another figure, the exploded view should be placed in brackets.Partial Views: When necessary, a view of a large machine or device in its entirety may be broken into partial views on a single sheet or extended over several sheets if there is no loss in facility of understanding the view. Partial views drawn on separate sheets must always be capable of being linked edge to edge so that no partial view contains parts of another partial view.A smaller scale view should be included showing the whole formed by the partial views and indicating the positions of the parts shown.When a portion of a view is enlarged for magnification purposes, the view and the enlarged view must each be labeled as separate views.Where views on two or more sheets form, in effect, a s ingle complete view, the views on the several sheets must be so arranged that the complete figure can be assembled without concealing any part of any of the views appearing on the various sheets.A very long view may be divided into several parts placed one above the other on a single sheet. However, the relationship between the different parts must be clear and unambiguous. Sectional Views: The plane upon which a sectional view (example 2) is taken should be indicated on the view from which the section is cut by a broken line. The ends of the broken line should be designated by Arabic or Roman numerals corresponding to the view number of the sectional view and should have arrows to indicate the direction of sight. Hatching must be used to indicate section portions of an object and must be made by regularly spaced oblique parallel lines spaced sufficiently apart to enable the lines to be distinguished without difficulty. Hatching should not impede the clear reading of the reference characters and lead lines. If it is not possible to place reference characters outside the hatched area, the hatching may be broken off wherever reference characters are inserted. Hatching must be at a substantial angle to the surrounding axes or principal lines, preferably 45 °.A cross-section must be set out and drawn to show all of the materials as they are shown in the v iew from which the cross section was taken. The parts in cross section must show proper material(s) by hatching with regularly spaced parallel oblique strokes, the space between strokes being chosen on the basis of the total area to be hatched. The various parts of a cross section of the same item should be hatched in the same manner and should accurately and graphically indicate the nature of the material(s) that is illustrated in cross-section.The hatching of juxtaposed different elements must be angled in a different way. In the case of large areas, hatching may be confined to an edging drawn around the entire inside of the outline of the area to be hatched.Different types of hatching should have different conventional meanings as regards the nature of a material seen in cross-section. Alternate Position: A moved position may be shown by a broken line superimposed upon a suitable view if this can be done without crowding; otherwise, a separate view must be used for this purpose.Modified Forms: Modified forms of construction must be shown in separate views. Arrangement of Views One view must not be placed upon another or within the outline of another. All views on the same sheet should stand in the same direction and, if possible, stand so that they can be read with the sheet held in an upright position. If views wider than the width of the sheet are necessary for the clearest illustration of the invention, the sheet may be turned on its side so that the top of the sheet, with the appropriate top margin to be used as the heading space, is on the right-hand side. Words must appear in a horizontal, left-to-right fashion when the page is either upright or turned so that the top becomes the right side, except for graphs utilizing standard scientific convention to denote the axis of abscissas (of X) and the axis of ordinates (of Y). Front Page View The drawing must contain as many views as necessary to show the invention. One of the views should be suitable for inclusion on the front page of the patent application publication and patent as the illustration of the invention. Views must not be connected by projection lines and must not contain center lines. The applicant may suggest a single view (by figure number) for inclusion on the front page of the patent application publication and patent. Scale The scale to which a drawing is made must be large enough to show the mechanism without crowding when the drawing is reduced in size to two-thirds in reproduction. Indications such as actual size or scale 1/2 on the drawings are not permitted since these lose their meaning with reproduction in a different format. Character of Lines, Numbers, and Letters All drawings must be made by a process which will give them satisfactory reproduction characteristics. Every line, number, and letter must be durable, clean, black (except for color drawings), sufficiently dense and dark, and uniformly thick and well-defined. The weight of all lines and letters must be heavy enough to permit adequate reproduction. This requirement applies to all lines, however, fine, to shading, and to lines representing cut surfaces in sectional views. Lines and strokes of different thicknesses may be used in the same drawing where different thicknesses have a different meaning. Shading The use of shading in views is encouraged if it aids in understanding the invention and if it does not reduce legibility. Shading is used to indicate the surface or shape of spherical, cylindrical, and conical elements of an object. Flat parts may also be lightly shaded. Such shading is preferred in the case of parts shown in perspective, but not for cross-sections. See paragraph (h)(3) of this section. Spaced lines for shading are preferred. These lines must be thin, as few in number as practicable, and they must contrast with the rest of the drawings. As a substitute for shading, heavy lines on the shade side of objects can be used except where they superimpose on each other or obscure reference characters. Light should come from the upper left corner at an angle of 45 °. Surface delineations should preferably be shown by proper shading. Solid black shading areas are not permitted, except when used to represent bar graphs or color. Symbols Graphical drawing symbols may be used for conventional elements when appropriate. The elements for which such symbols and labeled representations are used must be adequately identified in the specification. Known devices should be illustrated by symbols which have a universally recognized conventional meaning and are generally accepted in the art. Other symbols which are not universally recognized may be used, subject to approval by the Office, if they are not likely to be confused with existing conventional symbols, and if they are readily identifiable. Legends Suitable descriptive legends may be used subject to approval by the Office or may be required by the examiner where necessary for an understanding of the drawing. They should contain as few words as possible. Numbers, Letters, Reference Characters Reference characters (numerals are preferred), sheet numbers, and view numbers must be plain and legible, and must not be used in association with brackets or inverted commas, or enclosed within outlines, e.g., encircled. They must be oriented in the same direction as the view so as to avoid having to rotate the sheet. Reference characters should be arranged to follow the profile of the object depicted.The  English alphabet  must be used for letters, except where another alphabet is customarily used, such as the  Greek alphabet  to indicate angles, wavelengths, and mathematical formulas.Numbers, letters, and reference characters must measure at least.32 cm. (1/8 inch) in height. They should not be placed in the drawing so as to interfere with its comprehension. Therefore, they should not cross or mingle with the lines. They should not be placed upon hatched or shaded surfaces. When necessary, such as indicating a surface or cross section, a reference character may be underlin ed and a blank space may be left in the hatching or shading where the character occurs so that it appears distinct. The same part of an invention appearing in more than one view of the drawing must always be designated by the same reference character, and the same reference character must never be used to designate different parts.Reference characters not mentioned in the description shall not appear in the drawings. Reference characters mentioned in the description must appear in the drawings. Lead Lines Lead lines are those lines between the reference characters and the details referred to. Such lines may be straight or curved and should be as short as possible. They must originate in the immediate proximity of the reference character and extend to the feature indicated. Lead lines must not cross each other. Lead lines are required for each reference character except for those which indicate the surface or cross section on which they are placed. Such a reference character must be underlined to make it clear that a lead line has not been left out by mistake. Arrows Arrows may be used at the ends of lines, provided that their meaning is clear, as follows: On a lead line, a freestanding arrow to indicate the entire section towards which it points;On a lead line, an arrow touching a line to indicate the surface shown by the line looking along the direction of the arrow; orTo show the direction of movement. Copyright or Mask Work Notice A copyright or mask work notice may appear in the drawing but must be placed within the sight of the drawing immediately below the figure representing the copyright or mask work material and be limited to letters having a print size of 32 cm. to 64 cm. (1/8 to 1/4 inches) high. The content of the notice must be limited to only those elements provided for by law. For example,  ©1983 John Doe (17 U.S.C. 401) and *M* John Doe (17 U.S.C. 909) would be properly limited and, under current statutes, legally sufficient notices of copyright and mask work, respectively. Inclusion of a copyright or mask work notice will be permitted only if the authorization language set forth in rule  Ã‚ § 1.71(e)  is included at the beginning (preferably as the first paragraph) of the specification. Numbering of Sheets of Drawings The sheets of drawings should be numbered in consecutive Arabic numerals, starting with 1, within the sight as defined by the  margins. These numbers, if present, must be placed in the middle of the top of the sheet, but not in the margin. The numbers can be placed on the right-hand side if the drawing extends too close to the middle of the top edge of the usable surface. The drawing sheet numbering must be clear and larger than the numbers used as  reference characters  to avoid confusion. The number of each sheet should be shown by two Arabic numerals placed on either side of an oblique line, with the first being the sheet number and the second being the total number of sheets of drawings, with no other marking. Numbering of Views The different views must be numbered in consecutive Arabic numerals, starting with 1, independent of the numbering of the sheets and, if possible, in the order in which they appear on the drawing sheet(s). Partial views intended to form one complete view, on one or several sheets, must be identified by the same number followed by a  capital letter. View numbers must be preceded by the abbreviation FIG. Where only a single view is used in an application to illustrate the claimed invention, it must not be numbered and the abbreviation FIG. must not appear.Numbers and letters identifying the views must be simple and clear and must not be used in association with brackets, circles, or  inverted commas. The view numbers must be larger than the numbers used for reference characters. Security Markings Authorized security markings may be placed on the drawings provided they are outside the sight, preferably centered in the top margin. Corrections Any corrections on drawings submitted to the Office must be durable and permanent. Holes No holes should be made by the applicant in the drawing sheets. Types of Drawings See rules for  § 1.152 for design drawings,  § 1.165 for plant drawings, and  § 1.174 for reissue drawings